The Thirty Years' War: A battle over religion, power and territory

The war was often fought primarily in places where there was still something to eat or pillage. Farmers were tortured to force them to reveal their hidden stockpiles of food. Swedish mercenaries terrorized the populace with the so-called "Swedish drink," a torture method in which a mixture of urine, excrement and dirty water was funneled into prisoners’ mouths.

Gustav II Adolf of Sweden entered the war in 1630 to save German Protestantism and expand his influence in Europe. He prevented the victory of the Catholic camp led by the Holy Roman Emperor, and was an active commander who personally led his troops in battle.

One of the biggest battles of the Thirty Years' War was fought on 16 November 1632 in Lützen, with huge losses but no discernable victor. The predominantly Swedish Protestant Army under King Gustav II Adolf — depicted praying here — fought against the Emperor’s troops led by Albrecht von Wallenstein. The Swedish king was killed in a cavalry charge, handing the Catholic forces a propaganda victory.

There were also war profiteers: commanders who recruited soldiers, organized professional armies and perfected the business of slaughter. The most successful was General Albrecht von Wallenstein on the side of the Emperor. He introduced a levy system whereby farmers, merchants and citizens were forced to supply food, and even soldiers' pay. Wallenstein’s motto was "War will feed itself."

Executions and tortures were a daily occurrence. The artist and contemporary witness Jacques Callot captured the horrors of the Thirty Years' War in his drawings. Callot depicted the population as both victims and perpetrators, with soldiers being lynched or ending up crippled beggars. His best-known work is the etching entitled "The Hanging" (1632/33).

Hardly anyone still believed it was possible, but at last it was achieved. After five years of preparations and negotiations in the Protestant city of Osnabrück and the Catholic city of Münster, all parties to the war signed peace treaties in Münster. The Peace of Westphalia is still seen as an inspiration for resolving conflicts today.